The risk factors for penile and cervical cancer are cigarette smoking and exposure to various strains of the human papilloma or wart virus (HPV), through unprotected sex with multiple partners. Penile cancer is an extremely rare disease with less than 1 case per 100,000 men and a median age of diagnosis of 64 years. Circumcised men do develop penile cancer, which can develop on the circumcision scar.

Early cervical cancer may not cause noticeable signs or symptoms. Women should have yearly check-ups, including a Pap smear to check for abnormal cells in the cervix. One of the greatest risk factors is infection with HPV (human papillomavirus). A weakened immune system is also a risk factor for cervical cancer.

The best way to protect yourself is to get screened regularly with both the Pap and HPV tests. Together, these tests determine if you are likely to have or to develop abnormal cells that could become cervical cancer if not treated.

Both the Reproductive Health and the Immunization programs offer the HPV vaccine. You'll find a fact sheet about it on this page. This vaccine helps to reduce the risk of developing cervical cancer and is available to females between the ages of 9-26. Hepatitis A and B vaccine is also available through Reproductive Health and Immunizations offers a wide spectrum of childhood and adult vaccines. You may qualify for a special program called "Women's Health Check".

In Europe, cervical cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths among young women (between 15-44). In Europe 40 women die each day of cervical cancer. In the UK there are approximately 2,800 new cases of cervical cancer every year and about 1,100 deaths every year. This means in the UK, 21 women on average die each week from cervical cancer.

Certain types of diets, in particular those rich in fruits and vegetable, seem to confer "cancer protective" effects. Antioxidants including Vitamins E, C, and A have the effect of preventing damage to a cell's DNA and are also "cancer protective." A healthy, well-functioning immune system is absolutely essential to your overall health and well being. It is your immune system that prevents potential damage from foreign substances such as microorganisms and carcinogens.

Most cervical cancers can be prevented. Pap tests are an effective way to detect problems. Once these problems are detected, treatment can stop these complications before they develop into invasive cervical cancer.

Circumcision is the surgical removal of the sleeve of skin and mucosal tissue that normally covers the glans (head) of the penis. This double layer, sometimes called the prepuce, is more commonly known as the foreskin. Parents are encouraged to read as much as possible about circumcision. They should make themselves aware of the complexities of the circumcision procedure itself. Speak to your doctor about the step-by-step procedure.

ANSWER: A vaccine to prevent infection with a virus linked to cervical cancer is now available. The Gardasil vaccine has been shown in clinical trials to be nearly 100% effective in preventing infection with four types of human papillomavirus (HPV), specifically numbers 6, 11, 16, and 18. HPV 16 and 18 are responsible for 70% of all cases of cervical cancer while HPV 6 and 11 cause 90% of all genital warts.

Cervical cancer is primarily caused by the HPV virus (99.7%). So a vaccine stopping HPV would appear to stop cervical cancer. Among the vaccines under development, two of the companies are in Phase III clinical trials (Glaxo & Merck) and appear close to providing data to the FDA. These vaccines focus in on HPV types 16 and 18 which account for 70% of the cervical cancers.

Most precancerous conditions of the cervix could be detected and treated before cancer develops if all women had pelvic exams and Pap tests regularly. This way, most invasive cancers could be prevented. Any invasive cancer that does occur would likely be found at an early, curable stage.

In some cases, yes. Pap tests done according to American Cancer Society guidelines and with proper follow up will prevent most but not all cases of cervical cancer. Pap tests can find cervix cell changes early before they become cervical cancer. These cervix cell changes can then be treated to prevent them from becoming cancer. The Pap test will find most but not all cervical cancers at an early, curable stage.

Women who have a history of abnormal PAPs in the past need a PAP every year. If you have never had an abnormal PAP and you have a steady partner who does not have any other partners you are at a lower risk of having an abnormal PAP and only need to have a PAP every three years. If you are over forty or have a risk for other hereditary diseases you may need to see your practitioner more frequently.